Thus, several factors specific to particular units or individuals, such as exposure to BCG, TB, or NTM, use of a different TST product, or variability in TST administration and reading might account for the higher German incidence of LTBI compared to United States or Canadian military and travelers. Although the US military does not perform two-step testing prior to travel (deployment), all service members are tested upon entry into military service, and all Army and Navy service members are required PTC124 nmr to undergo testing within 1 year prior to deployment. Thus, military data sources may reflect more boosted reactions than civilian

studies, at least on the first test after entry into military service. Another potential variable http://www.selleckchem.com/products/byl719.html affecting estimates of LTBI in travelers is selection bias due to varying

rates of adherence to post-travel testing.5,40–42 Adherence to post-travel testing in civilian populations is often poor, resulting in a possible selection bias, which complicates determination of true travel-associated infection. Due to compulsory testing, military populations may have less selection bias both by having fewer subjects who decline to participate and from fewer losses to follow-up (reading of the test) than is possible in civilian populations. Furthermore, militaries may have more robust electronic administrative record-keeping systems that allow the compilation of large numbers of skin tests related to travel (deployment). On the other hand, military testing is usually done in large numbers, where quality control may not be as rigorous, which occasionally results in the pseudoepidemics mentioned, and

may also result in underreporting.8 Another significant limitation of this study is that it is not generalizable to all long-term travel populations. The data sources used in this study over-represented military members, and SWA was by far the most frequent travel destination. Furthermore, the military data sources contained markedly larger population samples than civilian studies, although the meta-influence analysis demonstrated that no single study significantly affected the estimate. However, group characteristics should always be used with caution when assessing Temsirolimus cell line TB exposure risks, as individual risks and exposures are of much greater importance. IGRAs may also be used to aid diagnosis of LTBI in place of the TST.43 However, the only study to assess travel-related TB risk using an IGRA was done in a high-prevalence country of travel origin and so was not included in our analysis.24 IGRAs are more specific than the TST in BCG-vaccinated populations, but only slightly more specific for LTBI than the TST in populations that have not been vaccinated with BCG.44,45 There are similar concerns regarding reliability and PPV in low-prevalence populations as for the TST.

Thus, several factors specific to particular units or individuals, such as exposure to BCG, TB, or NTM, use of a different TST product, or variability in TST administration and reading might account for the higher German incidence of LTBI compared to United States or Canadian military and travelers. Although the US military does not perform two-step testing prior to travel (deployment), all service members are tested upon entry into military service, and all Army and Navy service members are required MK0683 concentration to undergo testing within 1 year prior to deployment. Thus, military data sources may reflect more boosted reactions than civilian

studies, at least on the first test after entry into military service. Another potential variable Thiazovivin nmr affecting estimates of LTBI in travelers is selection bias due to varying

rates of adherence to post-travel testing.5,40–42 Adherence to post-travel testing in civilian populations is often poor, resulting in a possible selection bias, which complicates determination of true travel-associated infection. Due to compulsory testing, military populations may have less selection bias both by having fewer subjects who decline to participate and from fewer losses to follow-up (reading of the test) than is possible in civilian populations. Furthermore, militaries may have more robust electronic administrative record-keeping systems that allow the compilation of large numbers of skin tests related to travel (deployment). On the other hand, military testing is usually done in large numbers, where quality control may not be as rigorous, which occasionally results in the pseudoepidemics mentioned, and

may also result in underreporting.8 Another significant limitation of this study is that it is not generalizable to all long-term travel populations. The data sources used in this study over-represented military members, and SWA was by far the most frequent travel destination. Furthermore, the military data sources contained markedly larger population samples than civilian studies, although the meta-influence analysis demonstrated that no single study significantly affected the estimate. However, group characteristics should always be used with caution when assessing Molecular motor TB exposure risks, as individual risks and exposures are of much greater importance. IGRAs may also be used to aid diagnosis of LTBI in place of the TST.43 However, the only study to assess travel-related TB risk using an IGRA was done in a high-prevalence country of travel origin and so was not included in our analysis.24 IGRAs are more specific than the TST in BCG-vaccinated populations, but only slightly more specific for LTBI than the TST in populations that have not been vaccinated with BCG.44,45 There are similar concerns regarding reliability and PPV in low-prevalence populations as for the TST.

After measuring OD595 nm, cuvettes were covered with parafilm and shaken vigorously for ∼10 s to aerate the sample, followed by determination of luminescence using a GLOMAX 20/20 luminometer (Promega, Madison, WI). Triplicate aerobic cultures of ES114 and JB1

were grown in LBS to an OD595 nm∼2.1. Samples (1 μL each) were removed, added to microcentrifuge tubes containing 1/5 volume 5% (v/v) phenol, pH 4.3, with 95% (v/v) ethanol, and placed on ice for 30 min. Dabrafenib purchase Samples were centrifuged and the pellets were stored at −80 °C overnight. Pellets were thawed, and RNA was isolated using Absolutely RNA Minipreps (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). RNA was treated using the Turbo DNA-free kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), and RNA quantity and purity were assessed using a Biotek Synergy 2 plate reader with Take3 Multi-Volume Plate and software (Winooski, VT). RNA was then stored at −80 °C. cDNA was synthesized using the SuperScript III First-Strand Synthesis System for RT-PCR (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and reactions were cleaned using a DNA Clean & Concentrator-5 kit (Zymo Research, Orange, CA). cDNA was

quantified using the Synergy 2 plate reader. Real-time PCR was performed using the MyIQ Single-Color Real-Time PCR Detection System (BioRad Laboratories), and reactions were set up using the BioRad IQ SYBR Green Supermix. Primers AS1310RTF2 click here and AS1310RTR2 were used to determine the level of VF1310 cDNA. ES114 genomic DNA was used to generate a standard curve. Real-time PCR data were analyzed using BioRad IQ™5 software. To determine ParcA-lacZ reporter expression, strains were grown overnight in LBS and diluted 1 : 1000 in 20 mL SWTO in 250-mL baffled flasks and grown at 24 °C with shaking to an OD of ∼0.1. Four hundred microliters were removed to inoculate 20 mL SWTO Astemizole in anaerobic bottles. These were

incubated at 24 °C with shaking until peak luminescence was reached. Strains were also grown aerobically in 20-mL SWTO in 250-mL baffled flasks and incubated at 24 °C with shaking until peak luminescence was reached. Culture samples were taken, cells were pelleted, the supernatant was discarded, and the pellet was frozen at −20 °C. The next day, the pellet was thawed and resuspended in Z-buffer for determination of β-galactosidase activity expressed as Miller units as described previously (Miller, 1992). Inoculant strains were grown unshaken in 5 mL of SWT in 50-mL conical tubes at 28 °C to an OD595 nm of 0.3–1.0, and cultures were diluted in Instant Ocean to a density no higher than 1700 CFU mL−1. In each experiment, the inoculant density of wild-type and mutants strains was equivalent, and this was checked by plating the inocula on LBS. Hatchling squid were placed in these inocula for up to 14 h before being rinsed in V. fischeri-free Instant Ocean.

After measuring OD595 nm, cuvettes were covered with parafilm and shaken vigorously for ∼10 s to aerate the sample, followed by determination of luminescence using a GLOMAX 20/20 luminometer (Promega, Madison, WI). Triplicate aerobic cultures of ES114 and JB1

were grown in LBS to an OD595 nm∼2.1. Samples (1 μL each) were removed, added to microcentrifuge tubes containing 1/5 volume 5% (v/v) phenol, pH 4.3, with 95% (v/v) ethanol, and placed on ice for 30 min. selleck chemicals Samples were centrifuged and the pellets were stored at −80 °C overnight. Pellets were thawed, and RNA was isolated using Absolutely RNA Minipreps (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). RNA was treated using the Turbo DNA-free kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), and RNA quantity and purity were assessed using a Biotek Synergy 2 plate reader with Take3 Multi-Volume Plate and software (Winooski, VT). RNA was then stored at −80 °C. cDNA was synthesized using the SuperScript III First-Strand Synthesis System for RT-PCR (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and reactions were cleaned using a DNA Clean & Concentrator-5 kit (Zymo Research, Orange, CA). cDNA was

quantified using the Synergy 2 plate reader. Real-time PCR was performed using the MyIQ Single-Color Real-Time PCR Detection System (BioRad Laboratories), and reactions were set up using the BioRad IQ SYBR Green Supermix. Primers AS1310RTF2 Epigenetic inhibitor and AS1310RTR2 were used to determine the level of VF1310 cDNA. ES114 genomic DNA was used to generate a standard curve. Real-time PCR data were analyzed using BioRad IQ™5 software. To determine ParcA-lacZ reporter expression, strains were grown overnight in LBS and diluted 1 : 1000 in 20 mL SWTO in 250-mL baffled flasks and grown at 24 °C with shaking to an OD of ∼0.1. Four hundred microliters were removed to inoculate 20 mL SWTO Progesterone in anaerobic bottles. These were

incubated at 24 °C with shaking until peak luminescence was reached. Strains were also grown aerobically in 20-mL SWTO in 250-mL baffled flasks and incubated at 24 °C with shaking until peak luminescence was reached. Culture samples were taken, cells were pelleted, the supernatant was discarded, and the pellet was frozen at −20 °C. The next day, the pellet was thawed and resuspended in Z-buffer for determination of β-galactosidase activity expressed as Miller units as described previously (Miller, 1992). Inoculant strains were grown unshaken in 5 mL of SWT in 50-mL conical tubes at 28 °C to an OD595 nm of 0.3–1.0, and cultures were diluted in Instant Ocean to a density no higher than 1700 CFU mL−1. In each experiment, the inoculant density of wild-type and mutants strains was equivalent, and this was checked by plating the inocula on LBS. Hatchling squid were placed in these inocula for up to 14 h before being rinsed in V. fischeri-free Instant Ocean.

Indeed, in a large virulence plasmid of Shigella flexnery, an astonishing 153 (53%) ORFs are related to known and putative IS elements; no known bacterial plasmid has been described previously with such a high proportion of IS elements, and four new IS elements have been definitively identified (Venkatesan et al., 2001). Additionally, metagenomic sequencing has yielded a flood of bacterial genome data that confirm the presence of increasing numbers of mobile elements in all analyzed bacterial genomes. This has naturally led to the development of evolutionary studies where consistent IS annotation across many different genomes has become necessary, and several

alternatives are now available for comparison and enhanced understanding of their evolutionary Etoposide molecular weight and functional roles (Siguier et al., 2006; Wagner et al., 2007). Piscirickettsia salmonis

is the etiologic agent of salmonid rickettsial septicemia, or piscirickettsiosis (Fryer et al., 1990), which is an aggressive infectious disease that has affected salmonid fish since the late 1980s (Bravo & Campos, 1989; Graggero et al., 1995; Marshall et al., 2007). Piscirickettsia salmonis is a facultative intracellular Gram-negative bacterium (Mauel et al., 2008; NVP-LDE225 order Mikalsen et al., 2008; Gómez et al., 2009) that was initially described as a Rickettsia-like Resminostat obligate intracellular Alphaproteobacteria. Recently, it was reclassified

as a Gammaproteobacteria that closely resembles Legionella and Francisella species (Fryer & Hedrick, 2003). This ambiguity misled researchers for more than a decade; therefore, its biology, epidemiology and genetics are almost totally unknown. Nevertheless, it is known that this bacterium persists in sea water (Olivares & Marshall, 2010), maintaining its infective potential under rough environmental conditions (Lannan & Fryer, 1994). This vitality suggests that its genetic background should be sufficiently versatile to adapt easily to changing stressful conditions. In fact, our laboratory has demonstrated that under limiting in vitro conditions, morphological and genetic changes are consistently observed (Rojas et al., 2008). Thus, the report of the first IS sequence in this genome strengthened the belief that the genome of P. salmonis might show a surprising degree of complexity and plasticity. As our laboratory can successfully grow this bacterium in liquid media (Gómez et al., 2009; E. González, F. Gómez, V. Henríquez, S. H. Marshall & C. Altamirano, unpublished data), based on increasing evidence of the adaptive potential of this bacterium (Rojas et al., 2008, 2009, 2010), we decided to evaluate the quality of the bacterial genome to determine whether the observed morphological changes and adaptability have a genetic background.

We next assessed whether lower level of cellular cholesterol had any influence on translocation/phosphorylation of CagA in H. pylori-infected AGS cells. The level of translocated/tyrosine-phosphorylated CagA (Fig. 1b) and the proportions of elongated cells (Fig. 1c) were reduced significantly in a concentration-dependent manner after pretreatment

of cells with different concentrations of lovastatin. Together, these results suggest that an adequate amount of cellular cholesterol is required for CagA-induced responses in H. pylori-infected cells. We further evaluated whether the level of endogenous cholesterol Z-VAD-FMK ic50 influenced the IL-8 transcriptional activation using a human IL-8 promoter construct (IL8-Luc) that contains AP-1 and NF-κB sites, fused with a luciferase reporter gene (Fig. 2a) (Chang et al., 2006). Following transfection with the IL8-Luc, AGS cells were treated with lovastatin to reduce the level of endogenous cholesterol and then infected with wild-type, ΔCagA, or ΔCagE H. pylori. Our data show a significant attenuation in the stimulation of IL-8 promoter activity in cells infected with the wild-type strain, but not

with ΔCagA or ΔCagE H. pylori (Fig. 2b). These results suggest that CagA-mediated IL-8 promoter activity was dependent on host endogenous cholesterol in epithelial cells. We then sought to investigate whether Screening Library clinical trial the C-terminal domain (CTD) of CagA that contains EPIYAs was involved in CagA-mediated IL-8 activation. Various expression constructs were constructed based on the strain 26695 that contains three EPIYA motifs (ABC-type):

a CagA full-length expression construct (CagA-FL) and CagA truncation mutants including two mutants with N-terminal deletions (CagA-ΔN and CagA-ΔN42) Decitabine purchase and a mutant with the C-terminal deletion (CagA-ΔC) (Fig. 3a). In parallel, a clinical isolate v669, which contains cagA sequence with AABD-type EPIYA repeats, was utilized to generate the analogous N-terminal deletion mutants (669CagA-ΔN and 669CagA-ΔN42) as well as a C-terminal deletion mutant (669CagA-ΔC) (Fig. 3a). When cells were co-transfected with IL8-Luc and CagA-FL, there was an approximately threefold increase in luciferase activity compared with cells transfected with IL8-Luc alone (Fig. 3b). Cells co-transfected with IL8-Luc and either CagA-ΔC or 669CagA-ΔC constructs exhibited basal level luciferase activity. In contrast, cells co-transfected with any of the N-terminal deletion mutants (CagA-ΔN, CagA-ΔN42, 669CagA-ΔN, and 669CagA-ΔN42) exhibited no significantly different luciferase activity when compared with cells co-transfected with CagA-FL (Fig. 3b). We next evaluated whether IL-8 promoter activity was influenced by lovastatin treatment. Cells co-transfected with IL8-Luc and either CagA-FL or CagA-ΔN expression constructs, lovastatin-treated cells exhibited a significant decrease in luciferase activity (Fig. 3c).

Candice van der Merwe1,2 1Watlington Health Ltd, Norfolk, UK, 2UEA, Norfolk, UK 80% of antibiotic prescriptions are prescribed in the community. Prescribing compliance to the local PCT formulary, Health Protection Agency (HPA) and BNF recommendations is poor. Pharmacists could be more proactive in helping to improve antibiotic stewardship in the community. The development of antibiotic

resistance is a public health issue. With 80% of antibiotic prescriptions issued in primary care ABT-888 mouse it is important to understand the quality of prescribing in this setting. Whilst national and local guidance exists to support prescribing, the extent it is adopted is unknown. The aim of this audit was to identify antibiotic prescriptions for acute infections commonly treated in the community and to compare the prescribing of these antibiotics to the local PCT1 formulary and HPA2 recommendations. All acute antibiotic prescriptions issued at one medical practice in Norfolk, England over a 3 week period in March 2012 were reviewed retrospectively. Following a pilot review the final details recorded

were age, sex, allergies, diagnosed condition, medication, strength, dose, duration and other relevant SP600125 order information e.g. pregnancy, swab results. Prescriptions were included if they were empirically prescribed for a new presentation of one of the specified conditions i.e. urinary tract infections, otitis media, rhino sinusitis, bronchitis/cough or tonsillitis/pharyngitis. Prescriptions were excluded if the antibiotic was recommended following culture and sensitivities, if there was a documented reason for the selection of an alternative treatment or for patients with any significant co-morbidity (e.g. COPD). Audit standards were 100% adherence to each PCT, HPA and BNF formulary recommended drug, dose, and course duration. Ethical approval was not required for this audit. 135 prescriptions were included in the audit, of these 92, 135 and 135 were compared to BNF, PCT and HPA guidance respectively.

SPTLC1 The BNF does not contain treatment recommendations for bronchitis/cough hence the smaller sample size. Only 27% (95% CI 18 to 36), 26% (95% CI 19 to 34) and 13% (95% CI 7 to 18) of prescriptions met all standards in the BNF, PCT and HPA guidance. First line treatment choice was adhered to in at least 70% of prescriptions across all guidance. Course duration adherence varied across the different conditions being treated. For example rhino sinusitis had 100% adherence across all relevant guidance for 7 days treatment but otitis media, where the recommend course duration is only 5 days, had a 5.3% adherence across all formularies. Adherence to specific dose recommendations was 34.8% for the BNF formulary and 28.1% for the HPA formulary. The PCT formulary does not specify dosages but advises prescribers to consult the BNF.

On the morning of swab exposures, hamsters were moved from their colony room to a separate behavior testing room. Four to 7 h later, VS-containing or clean blank swabs were dropped into VS or control hamsters’ home cages, respectively, and behavior was monitored while the hamsters interacted with the swab for 1 h. Hamsters were often observed to pick up the swab, chew on it and place it in their cheek pouches for several minutes at a time. While behavior was not quantified, adults were observed to perform more vigorous investigation of the VS swab. Thus, the Fos response represents a combination of responses to olfactory stimuli as well as behavioral interactions

with the swab. To prevent Buparlisib molecular weight control hamsters from smelling volatile components of VS, they were given access to blank swabs and killed for tissue collection prior to swab exposure for the VS-exposed hamsters. Thus, blank and VS-containing swabs were delivered 1–2 and 3–4 h after lights off, respectively. One hour after introduction of a swab into the cage, hamsters were killed with an overdose of sodium pentobarbital (150 mg/kg, i.p.) and a terminal blood sample was collected

via cardiac puncture for radioimmunoassay of circulating plasma testosterone. Hamsters were perfused transcardially with heparinized buffered saline rinse followed by 4% paraformaldehyde. Brains were post-fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 24 h and stored in 20% sucrose/phosphate-buffered PDGFR inhibitor saline solution until sectioning. Brains

were sectioned with a cryostat into 4 series of 40 μm thick sections and stored in cryoprotectant at −20°C until histological processing. The first series of sections was mounted onto glass slides, dehydrated with a series PIK3C2G of ethanols, and stained with cresyl violet before coverslipping for identification of regions of interest. A second and third series of sections were used to double-label cFos with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and orexin-A immunoreactivity, respectively, with free-floating immunohistochemistry. cFos is an immediate early gene used to indicate transcriptional activation (Sheng & Greenberg, 1990; Hughes & Dragunow, 1995), and TH is the rate-limiting enzyme for catecholamine production. Dopamine-β-hydroxylase, the enzyme that converts dopamine to norepinephrine, is absent in the ventral tegmental area in hamsters (Vincent, 1988), thus TH immunoreactivity in the ventral tegmental area was used here to identify dopaminergic cells. Orexin-A is one of two active orexinergic peptides (de Lecea et al., 1998; Sakurai et al., 1998), and, in particular, has been implicated in sexual reward (Muschamp et al., 2007; Di Sebastiano et al., 2011). Immunohistochemistry occurred at room temperature unless otherwise noted. Rinses with Trizma-buffered saline (0.05 m, pH = 7.6) occurred initially and between steps, and all antibodies were diluted in 2% of the appropriate serum and 0.

Lorenz for helpful discussion. There are no conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of the research

presented in this article. Abbreviations PF-02341066 mw ABA alpha-band activity ANS autonomic nervous system EEG electroencephalography ERP event-related potential FG fusiform gyrus M mean PCC posterior cingulate cortex PDR pupil dilation response SPN stimulus-preceding negativity Data S1: Supporting analyses of induced activity and of virtual channels in source space. Fig. S1. Time-frequency representations of total power and induced power. Fig. S2. Time-frequency representations of virtual channels in source space comprising PCC, FG, and right sensorimotor hand area. “
“DCC and UNC5 homologs (UNC5H) are guidance find more cue receptors highly expressed by mesocorticolimbic dopamine neurons. We have shown that dcc heterozygous mice exhibit increased dopamine, but not norepinephrine, innervation and function in medial prefrontal cortex. Concomitantly, dcc heterozygotes show blunted mesolimbic dopamine release and behavioral responses to stimulant drugs. These changes appear only in adulthood. Recently, we found an adolescent emergence of UNC5H expression by dopamine neurons and co-expression of DCC and UNC5H by single dopamine cells. Here, we demonstrate selective expression of unc5 homolog c mRNA by dopamine neurons in adulthood. We show that unc5c haploinsufficiency results in diminished amphetamine-induced

locomotion in male and female mice. This phenotype is identical to that produced by dcc haploinsufficiency and is observed after adolescence. Notably, and similar to dcc haploinsufficiency, unc5c haploinsufficiency leads to dramatic increases in tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the medial prefrontal cortex, but not in the nucleus accumbens. In contrast, not medial prefrontal cortex dopamine-β-hydroxylase expression is not altered. We confirmed that UNC5C protein is reduced in the ventral tegmental area of unc5c heterozygous mice, but that DCC expression

in this region remains unchanged. UNC5C receptors may also play a role in dopamine function and influence sensitivity to behavioral effects of stimulant drugs of abuse, at least upon first exposure. The striking similarities between the dcc and the unc5c haploinsufficient phenotypes raise the possibility that functions mediated by DCC/UNC5C complexes may be at play. “
“Synaptic plasticity is regarded as the major candidate mechanism for synaptic information storage and memory formation in the hippocampus. Mitogen-activated protein kinases have recently emerged as an important regulatory factor in many forms of synaptic plasticity and memory. As one of the subfamilies of mitogen-activated protein kinases, extracellular-regulated kinase is involved in the in vitro induction of long-term potentiation (LTP), whereas p38 mediates metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent long-term depression (LTD) in vitro.

1: What to start: summary recommendations) (1A). Factors such as potential side effects, co-morbidities, drug interactions, patient preference and dosing convenience need to be CH5424802 order considered in selecting ART in individual women. We recommend both HIV-positive women of childbearing potential and healthcare professionals

who prescribe ART are conversant with the benefits and risks of ARV agents for both the health of the HIV-positive woman and for that of an unborn child (GPP). We recommend that potential pharmacokinetic interactions between ARVs, hormonal contraceptive agents and hormone replacement therapy are checked before administration (with tools such as: http://www.hiv-druginteractions.org) (GPP]). There are few data to guide prescribing of initial ART specifically for women, as no RCT in patients starting ART has been powered to detect sex differences in efficacy. From the limited data available, virological outcomes within clinical trial settings generally appear to be no different between men and women. A meta-analysis of FDA registrational RCTs analysed data from 22 411 HIV-positive patients participating in 43 trials for 16 ARVs. Overall, 20% of study participants

were women. No significant differences in treatment response at week 48 were reported between men and women. Androgen Receptor animal study Rates of ART discontinuation for virological failure were higher in men (8.15%) than in women (4.25%) [214]. A subanalysis of an RCT comparing ATV/r and LPV/r in ART-naïve patients of whom 31% were women, showed comparable virological efficacy at week 96 between the two treatment arms in women [215], although virological response rates were lower in women when

compared with men. In a study comparing ATV/r and EFV in 1857 ART-naïve patients of whom 17% were women, female sex was associated with increased virological failure on ATV/r compared with EFV [216]. No difference was seen with EFV between Decitabine mw men and women. The efficacy and tolerability of RAL were shown not to be different between men and women at 48 weeks in one study of a diverse cohort of both treatment-naïve and -experienced patients [217]. RPV in ART-naïve men and women showed no difference in rates of virological suppression at 48 and 96 weeks between men and women, but the number of women included was low and the study was not designed to investigate sex differences [218, 219]. Cohort studies in the UK have reported similar virological outcomes during the first year of treatment in heterosexual men and women [220]. An Italian cohort study reported no significant effect of gender on clinical progression or the risk of developing a clinical event [221]. Data from Spain, which included both naïve and ARV-experienced women patients, showed them with similar virological responses to men [222].