This repression

is presumably relieved when nutrient conditions are sufficiently poor (host cell, macrophage, persistence). For comparison, S. aureus adaptation to glucose limitation and other environmental challenges involves regulatory switches, again both on the transcriptional level, as well as regarding metabolism (e.g., pyruvate dehydrogenase complex; Figure 2). During the aerobic/anaerobic shift, Rex- (redox sensing) regulators are involved both in redox sensing and in regulation of anaerobic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical gene expression [34] using a highly conserved binding sequence to repress genes downstream. This improves anaerobic reduction of NAD+ to NADH (lactate, format and ethanol Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical formation), nitrate respiration and ATP synthesis. A tight connection of metabolism, regulation and coordinated shifts in protein complexes and system states is also observed in other fast growing organisms, such as yeast [35]. 2.2.3. A System-Wide, Global View on Prokaryotic Protein Complexes Given the fact

that adaptation of metabolic networks happens in concert involving many pathways and that regulators are rather highly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical interconnected, an alternative to model bacterial adaptation are more global views. Thus, it is interesting to compare how metabolic changes are coupled to a response. Whereas eukaryotes in general rely more on sensing (external and internal) the environment [36], for bacteria, there is a

tighter connection to metabolism [7,33] in order Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to always achieve optimal the growth rate, including just-in-time ribosome synthesis [37]. Whether this can already be called “adaptive prediction of environmental changes” [38] is a matter of preference. However, these overall strategies clearly differ between prokaryotes and even growth-oriented eukaryotic organisms such as yeast. As a general rule, there is a much higher investment in control and sensing in eukaryotes, whereas metabolic adaptation of bacteria exploits direct regulation and coupling to metabolism. This is supported by data from Kotte et al. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical [7] and Jocefzuk et al. [6], as well as a number of specific building blocks included in adaptive structures and complexes such as riboswitches [39,40] and the aforementioned trigger enzymes with their double role to switch from Histone demethylase metabolic LY317615 function (often as members of an enzyme complex) to a direct regulatory function (binary complex, often involving nucleic acids) when substrate levels are low [9]. There are a number of coordinated adaptation scenarios for S. aureus with detailed, coordinated changes in metabolic enzymes, regulation and dynamics of protein complexes. Integration of different data sets facilitates a detailed comparison of how mRNA, protein and metabolite flux correlate. Examples of aerobic glucose limitation of S.