Furthermore, we demonstrate that inhibition of Th17 cell proliferation, CD25 up-regulation and IL-17A-secreting capacity are reproducible by synthetic

PGE2 at comparable concentrations to those observed in Th17/MSC co-cultures. Finally, results obtained with selective antagonists and agonists for the EP4 receptor in APC-free cultures indicate a direct action of MSC-produced PGE2 on CD4+ T cells via this receptor. These results highlight the broad role that has been reported for PGE2 in mediating various immune suppressive effects of MSCs 1–3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 18 while also emphasising the fact that high-level production of this, and other, soluble mediators is dependent upon an initial, contact-dependent cross-talk between MSCs and target cells 2, 7, 16. This latter consideration may be particularly relevant to the variable efficacy of MSCs in this website human clinical trials 20. We also note that additional mediators of MSC inhibition of Th17 cells have been reported, primarily in the context of rodent models of

tissue-specific autoimmunity, including alternatively cleaved CCL2, IDO and TGF-β1 14, 32, 33. In the co-culture systems reported here, significant reversal of MSC-mediated Th17 suppression was not observed with blocking/inhibiting agents for these pathways (our unpublished observations) and inhibition of COX-2 was consistently associated with complete or almost complete reversal of suppression. learn more Nonetheless, given the diversity of MSC-associated suppressive mediators that has been identified to date 1–3, it appears likely that additional direct and indirect mechanisms of Th17 inhibition participate under different

conditions. Of relevance to the current study, it is clear from a number of recent reports that the interplay between PGE2, the EP4 receptor and immunological processes, including the Th17 differentiation check details pathway, is an important but complex one. Xiao et al. demonstrated that both PGE2 and EP4 agonists protect the heart from ischemia reperfusion injury via EP4 36. Additionally, Kabashima et al. 37 reported, in a mouse model of colitis that EP4-deficient mice develop more severe disease compared with mice deficient in other prostanoid receptors. Complementary results were obtained in animals treated with EP4 antagonist and the effects were associated with increased activation of T cells in the colon of treated animals 37. In contrast, Yao et al. 38 reported that PGE2 enhanced expansion of Th17 cells in vitro and in vivo through PGE2-EP4 signalling. This effect was mediated, however, indirectly through IL-23 and, in this study, PGE2 was also shown to dose-dependently suppress Th17 differentiation from naïve CD4+ T cells in an APC-free culture system 38. Nonetheless, enhancement of Th17-mediated immune responses by PGE2/EP4 signalling has also been described in other experimental settings 39, 40.