7,39 The concepts of allostasis and allostatic load have been championed by McEwen to describe how chronic stress—”wear and tear”—can affect well-being selleck chemical through over-action of adrenal steroid secretion and the sympathetic nervous system.4,40 Oxytocin and vasopressin secretion are other pathways with multiple effects on birth, lactation, bonding, mate selection, and aggression. There are gender differences in the sociotypic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical responses, with females tending to (de)fend and befriend and males to fight or flight.41 This has become the basis for the new discipline of social neuroscience. We believe, however, that one of the major pathways of influence on sociotypic development

during the human life cycle is through nutrition, and this is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 The effects of nutrition on the sociotype during the life cycle. THE ROLE OF NUTRITION Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ON THE SOCIOTYPE DURING THE LIFE CYCLE Nutrition may be likened to the fuel that drives the body’s physical and psychological motor and should therefore be of the highest octane. From the research on the neonatal origins of adult disease (Barker hypothesis and metabolic programming)42 and longevity (telomere lengths43–45) it is now Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical recognized that nutritional influences begin at minus nine months. Famine pregnancy studies

from Holland46 and China47 confirm the increase in schizophrenia in the adult progeny. Nutrition affects many stages: pregnancy, breast-feeding, and weaning. The concept of the bonding and the “good and bad breast” stresses the importance of parenting attitudes. Milk contains endocannabinoids which are crucial for infant suckling.48 The endocannabinoid Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neurotransmitter modulator system is derived from essential omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids necessary for the synthesis of 2 arachidonyl glycerol and regulates appetite in a quasi-feedback loop.49 In rodents, maternal grooming influences serotonin activity, steroid secretion, and the methylation and

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical acetylation status of gene expression.50 Adolescents are vulnerable to cultural influences concerning body image and to the development of eating disorders. In some people nutrition may affect their cognitive assessments (food and mood).51 Three of the principal Levetiracetam neurotransmitters—serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine—are derived from essential amino-acids tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine. It is possible that some of the abnormal cognitive functioning in anorexia is due a lack of such precursors, which can be alleviated by oral tyrosine supplementation (Israel, Avraham & Berry, unpublished data). Eating disorders are examples par excellence of culture-bound diseases of the sociotype (“nothing tastes as good as thinness feels”), as discussed elsewhere.1 Brain peptides—orexins—provide a link between eating behavior, body weight, and sleep.