135 The reserve hypothesis has been proposed to interpret this association such that education could enhance neural and cognitive reserve that may provide compensatory mechanisms to cope with

degenerative pathological changes in the brain, and therefore delay onset of the www.selleckchem.com/products/AP24534.html dementia syndrome.136 Alternatively, educational achievement may be a surrogate or an indicator of intelligent quotient, early life living environments, and occupational toxic exposure experienced over adulthood.133 Social network and social engagement Evidence from longitudinal observational studies suggests Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that a poor social network or social disengagement is associated with cognitive decline and dementia.132,137 The risk for dementia and AD was Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical also increased in older people with increasing social isolation and less frequent and unsatisfactory contacts with relatives and friends. Furthermore, a recent study suggested that low neuroticism

in combination with high extraversion was the personality trait associated with the lowest dementia risk, and among socially isolated individuals even low neuroticism alone seemed to decrease the risk of dementia.138 Finally, low social engagement in late life and a decline in social engagement from middle age to late life were associated with a doubly increased risk of developing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical dementia and AD in late life.139,140 Rich social networks and high social engagement imply better social support, leading to better access to resources and material goods. Rich and large social networks also provide affective and intellectual stimulation that could influence cognitive function and different Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical health outcomes through behavioral, psychological, and physiological pathways.132,141 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Physical activity Regular physical exercise

was reported to be associated with a delay in onset of dementia and AD among cognitively healthy elderly.142 In the Kungsholmen Project, the component of physical activity presenting in various Entinostat leisure activities, rather than sports and any specific physical exercise, was related to a decreased dementia risk.143 In addition, low-intensity activity such as walking may reduce the risk of dementia and cognitive decline.144 A strong protective effect of regular physical activity in middle age against the development of dementia and AD in late life was reported, especially for persons with the APOE ε4 allele.145 As it may take years to achieve high levels of physical fitness, brief periods of exercise training may not have substantial benefits on cognitive processes, but could still be detectable in the subsets of cognitive domains that are more sensitive to the agerelated decrements.