This result contrasts with the effects of simvastatin on SOCS3 induction that were maximal after 24 hr of stimulation. When we examined the effects of simvastatin on the early events in the TGF-β signal transduction cascade, we did not observe any augmentation of Smad3 phosphorylation. In contrast, the major effects of simvastatin were associated with a decreased induction of Smad6/7, inhibitory Smads that inhibit TGF-β signalling by blocking the phosphorylation of Smad2/3.

We favour the view that simvastatin can directly block the induction of Smad6/7 expression, as the drug also inhibited the induction of Smad6/7 at 72 hr in the presence of a TCR signal alone in the absence of TGF-β. Alternatively, it is possible that the effects of simvastatin on Smad6/7 expression are mediated indirectly via a direct effect on Foxp3 expression as Fantini et al.22 have Midostaurin in vitro demonstrated that transfection of Foxp3 is capable of blocking TGF-β-induced Smad7 expression by acting directly on the Smad7 promoter. This mechanism is consistent with our findings that Smad6/7 cannot be induced in Foxp3+ nTregs following TGF-β signalling. Although it is difficult to extrapolate from our in vitro model systems to the in vivo situation, our results that simvastatin can markedly

enhance the induction of Foxp3 expression selleck compound in the presence of Edoxaban low concentrations of TGF-β strongly suggest that some of the beneficial effects of simvastatin include the generation of Tregs in the inflammatory milieu of the atherosclerotic

plaque. Further analysis of the mechanism of action of simvastatin will require identification of the targets of geranylgeranylation at different time-points after T-cell activation. Ras, Rho, CDC42 and many different GTPases are important for early signal transduction after engagement of the TCR and may play a role in induction of SOCS3. However, our findings suggest that the effects of simvastatin are on proteins synthesized 24 hr after TCR stimulation. At the very least, our study strongly implies that an analysis of TCR-specific protein prenylation is a potential pathway for pharmacological manipulation of Tregs in vivo. This study was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, MD). The authors have no conflict of interest. Figure S1. Simvastatin does not induce cell death or alter the cell cycle of Foxp3− cells. “
“The composition of the peripheral blood lymphocyte compartment underlies developmental changes during ontogeny. Recently, several new B cell populations have been characterized which were suggested to develop in an age-dependent manner. However, age-dependent reference values for distinct B cell populations have rarely been reported.